The development of the revised COPE 68 inventory with English and Slovak versions.

Introduction: Although there have been several attempts at improving the COPE Inventory, the factor structure of the instrument is still in dispute. In addition, studies have shown low reliability coefficients for some of the first-order factors, with Mental Disengagement having the lowest factor loadings. In a recent study on the external validation of the instrument, two additional first-order factors were identified in the qualitative analysis, namely Self-care and Care for Others. Methods: Based on these arguments we created the Revised COPE 68 Inventory, changing some of the problematic items in the first order factor Mental Disengagement and adding items for the two new factors (Self-care and Care for Others). We then tested its reliability and performed factor analyses on the first and second-order factorial structure. The data were collected through social media in two languages, English and Slovak, using convenience and snowball sampling techniques. The English sample contained 834 participants with mean age 25.27 years (SD = 8.467) and the Slovak sample comprised 1,425 participants with mean age 33 years (SD = 14.59). For the statistical analyses we used Exploratory Structural Equation Model (ESEM) analyses with target rotation and WLSMV, Exploratory and second-order confirmatory factor analysis with the scores of the COPE Inventory and EFA. Results: The Revised COPE 68 inventory had a good fit for all 17 first-order factors in both languages, including for the new factors Self-care and Care for Others. It appears that the first-order factors form a three-factor solution in both samples, consisting of active coping, social-emotional coping and avoidant coping. The revised Mental Disengagement has better psychometric properties as well. Discussion: The Revised COPE 68 inventory was found to be a reliable multidimensional instrument for measuring various coping strategies in both the English and Slovak language versions.

Differences Between High and Low Self-Critics in Compassionate Facial Expression.

The goal of this study was to identify differences between high and low self-critical participants in relation to compassionate facial expressions. Our convenience sample consisted of 151 participants aged 18-59 years old (M = 25.17; SD = 7.81). The highest and the lowest scoring participants in self-criticism were selected for final analysis (N = 35). Participants, at home alone, watched a short video stimulus eliciting compassion while their facial expressions were recorded using webcams. Out of the sample we selected the highest 10% and the lowest 10% of self-critical participants according to the Slovak norms of The Forms of Self-Criticizing/Attacking and Self-Reassuring Scale. Two certified Facial Action Coding System raters (FACS) coded the participants' muscular activity according to facial action units. The FACS analysis revealed that action units 4 - brow lowerer, 7 - lids tight, 43 - eyes closed, 45 - blink, 55 - head tilt left, and 56 - head tilt right occurred significantly less often in high self-critical participants than in low self-critical participants, controlling for the difference between the baseline and compassionate moments in the video stimulus. Our research found that participants high in self-criticism were less facially expressive than those low in self-critical when watching compassionate video.

Automated facial expression analysis of participants self-criticising via the two-chair technique: exploring facial behavioral markers of self-criticism.

Introduction: As self-rating scales are prone to many measurement distortions, there is a growing call for more objective measures based on physiological or behavioural indicators. Self-criticism is one of the major transdiagnostic factor of all mental disorders therefore it is important to be able to distinguish what are the characteristic facial features of self-criticizing. To the best of our knowledge, there has been no automated facial emotion expression analysis of participants self-criticising via the two-chair technique. The aim of this study was to detect which action units of facial expressions were significantly more often present in participants performing self-criticism using the two-chair technique. The broader goal was to contribute to the scientific knowledge on objective behavioural descriptions of self-criticism and to provide an additional diagnostic means to the existing self-rating scales by exploring facial behavioral markers of self-criticism. Methods: The non-clinical sample consisted of 80 participants (20 men and 60 women) aged 19 years to 57 years (M = 23.86; SD = 5.98). In the analysis we used iMotions's Affectiva AFFDEX module (Version 8.1) to classify the participants' actions units from the self-criticising videos. For the statistical analysis we used a multilevel model to account for the repeated-measures design. Results: Based on the significant results the self-critical facial expression may therefore comprise the following action units: Dimpler, Lip Press, Eye Closure, Jaw Drop, and Outer Brow Raise, which are related to contempt, fear, and embarrassment or shame; and Eye Closure and Eye Widen (in rapid sequence Blink), which are a sign that highly negative stimuli are being emotionally processed. Discussion: The research study need to be further analysed using clinical samples to compare the results.

Improvements in Compassion and Fears of Compassion throughout the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Multinational Study.

During large-scale disasters, social support, caring behaviours, and compassion are shown to protect against poor mental health outcomes. This multi-national study aimed to assess the fluctuations in compassion over time during the COVID-19 pandemic. Respondents (Time 1 n = 4156, Time 2 n = 980, Time 3 n = 825) from 23 countries completed online self-report questionnaires measuring the flows of compassion (i.e., Compassionate Engagement and Action Scales) and fears of compassion toward self and others and from others (i.e., Fears of Compassion Scales) and mental health at three time-points during a 10-month period. The results for the flows of compassion showed that self-compassion increased at Time 3. Compassion for others increased at Time 2 and 3 for the general population, but in contrast, it decreased in health professionals, possibly linked to burnout. Compassion from others did not change in Time 2, but it did increase significantly in Time 3. For fears of compassion, fears of self-compassion reduced over time, fears of compassion for others showed more variation, reducing for the general public but increasing for health professionals, whilst fears of compassion from others did not change over time. Health professionals, those with compassion training, older adults, and women showed greater flows of compassion and lower fears of compassion compared with the general population, those without compassion training, younger adults, and men. These findings highlight that, in a period of shared suffering, people from multiple countries and nationalities show a cumulative improvement in compassion and reduction in fears of compassion, suggesting that, when there is intense suffering, people become more compassionate to self and others and less afraid of, and resistant to, compassion.

Compassion Protects Mental Health and Social Safeness During the COVID-19 Pandemic Across 21 Countries.

Objectives: The COVID-19 pandemic is having an unprecedented detrimental impact on mental health in people around the world. It is important therefore to explore factors that may buffer or accentuate the risk of mental health problems in this context. Given that compassion has numerous benefits for mental health, emotion regulation, and social relationships, this study examines the buffering effects of different flows of compassion (for self, for others, from others) against the impact of perceived threat of COVID-19 on depression, anxiety, and stress, and social safeness. Methods: The study was conducted in a sample of 4057 adult participants from the general community population, collected across 21 countries from Europe, Middle East, North America, South America, Asia, and Oceania. Participants completed self-report measures of perceived threat of COVID-19, compassion (for self, for others, from others), depression, anxiety, stress, and social safeness. Results: Perceived threat of COVID-19 was associated with higher scores in depression, anxiety, and stress, and lower scores in social safeness. Self-compassion and compassion from others were associated with lower psychological distress and higher social safeness. Compassion for others was associated with lower depressive symptoms. Self-compassion moderated the relationship between perceived threat of COVID-19 on depression, anxiety, and stress, whereas compassion from others moderated the effects of fears of contracting COVID-19 on social safeness. These effects were consistent across all countries. Conclusions: Our findings highlight the universal protective role of compassion, in particular self-compassion and compassion from others, in promoting resilience by buffering against the harmful effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on mental health and social safeness. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12671-021-01822-2.

The role of social connection on the experience of COVID-19 related post-traumatic growth and stress.

BACKGROUND: Historically social connection has been an important way through which humans have coped with large-scale threatening events. In the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, lockdowns have deprived people of major sources of social support and coping, with others representing threats. Hence, a major stressor during the pandemic has been a sense of social disconnection and loneliness. This study explores how people's experience of compassion and feeling socially safe and connected, in contrast to feeling socially disconnected, lonely and fearful of compassion, effects the impact of perceived threat of COVID-19 on post-traumatic growth and post-traumatic stress. METHODS: Adult participants from the general population (N = 4057) across 21 countries worldwide, completed self-report measures of social connection (compassion for self, from others, for others; social safeness), social disconnection (fears of compassion for self, from others, for others; loneliness), perceived threat of COVID-19, post-traumatic growth and traumatic stress. RESULTS: Perceived threat of COVID-19 predicted increased post-traumatic growth and traumatic stress. Social connection (compassion and social safeness) predicted higher post-traumatic growth and traumatic stress, whereas social disconnection (fears of compassion and loneliness) predicted increased traumatic symptoms only. Social connection heightened the impact of perceived threat of COVID-19 on post-traumatic growth, while social disconnection weakened this impact. Social disconnection magnified the impact of the perceived threat of COVID-19 on traumatic stress. These effects were consistent across all countries. CONCLUSIONS: Social connection is key to how people adapt and cope with the worldwide COVID-19 crisis and may facilitate post-traumatic growth in the context of the threat experienced during the pandemic. In contrast, social disconnection increases vulnerability to develop post-traumatic stress in this threatening context. Public health and Government organizations could implement interventions to foster compassion and feelings of social safeness and reduce experiences of social disconnection, thus promoting growth, resilience and mental wellbeing during and following the pandemic.

Intuitive Dualism and Afterlife Beliefs: A Cross-Cultural Study.

It is widely held that intuitive dualism-an implicit default mode of thought that takes minds to be separable from bodies and capable of independent existence-is a human universal. Among the findings taken to support universal intuitive dualism is a pattern of evidence in which "psychological" traits (knowledge, desires) are judged more likely to continue after death than bodily or "biological" traits (perceptual, physiological, and bodily states). Here, we present cross-cultural evidence from six study populations, including non-Western societies with diverse belief systems, that shows that while this pattern exists, the overall pattern of responses nonetheless does not support intuitive dualism in afterlife beliefs. Most responses of most participants across all cultures tested were not dualist. While our sample is in no way intended to capture the full range of human societies and afterlife beliefs, it captures a far broader range of cultures than in any prior study, and thus puts the case for afterlife beliefs as evidence for universal intuitive dualism to a strong test. Based on these findings, we suggest that while dualist thinking is a possible mode of thought enabled by evolved human psychology, such thinking does not constitute a default mode of thought. Rather, our data support what we will call intuitive materialism-the view that the underlying intuitive systems for reasoning about minds and death produce as a default judgment that mental states cease to exist with bodily death.

Fears of compassion magnify the harmful effects of threat of COVID-19 on mental health and social safeness across 21 countries.

BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic is a massive global health crisis with damaging consequences to mental health and social relationships. Exploring factors that may heighten or buffer the risk of mental health problems in this context is thus critical. Whilst compassion may be a protective factor, in contrast fears of compassion increase vulnerability to psychosocial distress and may amplify the impact of the pandemic on mental health. This study explores the magnifying effects of fears of compassion on the impact of perceived threat of COVID-19 on depression, anxiety and stress, and social safeness. METHODS: Adult participants from the general population (N = 4057) were recruited across 21 countries worldwide, and completed self-report measures of perceived threat of COVID-19, fears of compassion (for self, from others, for others), depression, anxiety, stress and social safeness. RESULTS: Perceived threat of COVID-19 predicted increased depression, anxiety and stress. The three flows of fears of compassion predicted higher levels of depression, anxiety and stress and lower social safeness. All fears of compassion moderated (heightened) the impact of perceived threat of COVID-19 on psychological distress. Only fears of compassion from others moderated the effects of likelihood of contracting COVID-19 on social safeness. These effects were consistent across all countries. CONCLUSIONS: Fears of compassion have a universal magnifying effect on the damaging impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on mental health and social safeness. Compassion focused interventions and communications could be implemented to reduce resistances to compassion and promote mental wellbeing during and following the pandemic.

Randomised controlled trial of the new short-term online emotion focused training for self-compassion and self-protection in a nonclinical sample.

The Emotion Focused Training for Self-Compassion and Self-Protection (EFT-SCP) is an intervention developed to increase skills of self-compassion and protective anger with the aim to decrease self-criticism. This novel intervention was developed on the basis of the latest findings on self-criticism from Emotion-focused therapy and previous programs cultivating compassion (namely Compassion Mind Training and Mindful Self-Compassion Program). According to existing research, simply cultivating self-compassion is not always sufficient in reducing self-criticism. Therefore, the EFT-SCP was designed to build self-compassion whilst developing protective anger to combat self-criticism. Our goal was to investigate the efficacy of this new, short-term, online EFT-SCP program in a non-clinical population. A randomized control trial was conducted with pre- and post-intervention measurements and two-month follow-up of self-compassion and self-criticism/reassurance. Convenience sampling was used to recruit participants through a snowballing technique on social media. A total of 123 participants were randomly allocated to the EFT-SCP intervention or to a control condition. The intervention group were instructed through emails to complete an EFT-SCP task every day for 14 consecutive days. The control group did not complete any tasks. Out of 123 participants, 31 from intervention group and 20 from control group completed all measurements. There was a significant effect of the EFT-SCP on increasing self-compassion and self-reassurance scores as reported at two-month follow-up. The EFT-SCP was also effective at reducing self-uncompassionate responding and self-criticism (specifically Hated self) with changes evident at two months post-intervention. These findings are encouraging and suggest that interventions designed to enhance self-compassion and decrease self-criticism can be delivered to broader populations without the direct contact with mental health professionals.

The Factor Structure and External Validity of the COPE 60 Inventory in Slovak Translation.

The COPE Inventory (Carver et al., 1989) is the most frequently used measure of coping; yet previous studies examining its factor structure yielded mixed results. The purpose of the current study, therefore, was to validate the factor structure of the COPE Inventory in a representative sample of over 2,000 adults in Slovakia. Our second goal was to evaluate the external validity of the COPE inventory, which has not been done before. Firstly, we performed the exploratory factor analysis (EFA) with half of the sample. Subsequently, we performed the confirmatory factor analysis with the second half of the sample. Both factor analyses with 15 factor solutions showed excellent fit with the data. Additionally, we performed a hierarchical factor analysis with fifteen first-order factors (acceptance, active coping, behavioral disengagement, denial, seeking emotional support, humor, seeking instrumental support, mental disengagement, planning, positive reinterpretation, religion, restraint, substance use, suppression of competing activities, and venting) and three second-order factors (active coping, social emotional coping, and avoidance coping) which showed good fit with the data. Moreover, the COPE Inventory's external validity was evaluated using consensual qualitative research (CQR) analysis on data collected by in-depth interviews. Categories of coping created using CQR corresponded with all COPE first-order factors. Moreover, we identified two additional first-order factors that were not present in the COPE Inventory: self-care and care for others. Our study shows that the Slovak translation of the COPE Inventory is a reliable, externally valid, and well-structured instrument for measuring coping in the Slovak population.

Perceived Threat of the Coronavirus and the Role of Trust in Safeguards: A Case Study in Slovakia.

In this exploratory research study, we developed an instrument to investigate people's confidence in safeguarding measures [Confidence in Safeguards Scale (CSS)] and we adapted an instrument measuring perceived risk of coronavirus [perceived risk of coronavirus scale (PRCS)] that was originally based on a perceived risk of HIV measure. We then explored the effect of public confidence in safeguarding measures designed to halt the spread of the coronavirus on perceived risk, controlling for related covariates. The sample consisted of N = 565 respondents; 119 were males (21.1%) and 446 were females (78.9%). Mean age was 35.42 (SD = 13.11), range was 18-77 years. We used convenience sampling to gather the data at the end of March 2020 via social media in Slovakia. The CSS showed good reliability levels and a three-factor structure: Confidence in Institutions, Confidence in Personal and Family Behaviors, and Confidence in Others' Behaviors. The PRCS showed good reliability levels and a two-factor structure: Fear of Contraction and Perceived Likelihood of Contraction. Participants with higher levels of Confidence in Others' Behaviors perceived the spread of the coronavirus to be less threatening, both cognitively (less perceived likelihood of contraction) and affectively (less fear of contraction). This finding could be used when designing public health policy and emergency communication. Enhancing confidence in others' behaviors could encourage individual responsibility, social responsibility, and solidarity through social bonds extending beyond the family. In future research we plan to replicate the data collection using the same instruments in different countries so the results are comparable across cultures and can be used to improve emergency communication.

Randomised Controlled Trial of an Online Version of Compassion Mind Training in a Nonclinical Sample.

Compassion Mind Training (CMT) is a therapeutic approach to guide highly self-critical individuals to generate compassion. The goal was to probe the efficacy of a short-term, online version of the CMT on self-compassion and self-criticism in a non-clinical population. We conducted a randomized controlled trial with pre-, post-measurements and two-month follow-up. Out of 144 randomly allocated participants 26 and 20 of those allocated to the intervention and control groups, respectively, completed the follow-up measures. The intervention group was instructed through email to practice a different CMT exercise every day for 13 consecutive days. There was a significant effect of the intervention on self-criticism, especially Hated-self and the Self-uncompassionate responding. The CMT group reported a reduction in negative thoughts and feelings with effects present at the two-month follow-up. There was no significant effect of the intervention on self-reassurance and self-compassion. Self-criticism is amenable to change following a short-term online intervention of CMT delivered to a non-clinical population with effects lasting at least two months. These findings are promising and suggest that interventions designed to reduce self-criticism can be provided to broader populations without direct involvement of mental health professionals.

Psychological and physiological effects of emotion focused training for self-compassion and self-protection.

Emotion Focused Training for Self-Compassion and Self-Protection (EFT-SCP) is a novel intervention developed on the basis of the latest findings on self-criticism from Emotion-focused therapy and existing programs designed to cultivate compassion. EFTSCP is designed to encourage participants to cultivate self-compassion and protective anger as a way of reducing selfcriticism. Our goal was to investigate the effect of this group-based intervention on self-criticism, self-protection, and self-compassion. A total of 73 students were assigned to the EFT-SCP intervention (n=19), no-treatment control (n=34) or to an active control group (n=20). The intervention group met weekly for 1.5 hours and were instructed to incorporate EFT-SCP tasks into their daily life for 12 weeks. Whilst the no-treatment group did not undergo an intervention, the active control group completed an adapted expressive writing task once a week. In addition to the assessment of heart rate variability during imagery tasks, participants also completed self-reported measures of self-compassion and self-criticism before and after the intervention. Compared with both control groups, the intervention group showed a significant increase in heart rate variability following EFT-SCP (during self-critical imagery, P=.049; probability of superiority was .63, and during self-compassionate imagery P=.007; probability of superiority was .62, both effect sizes were medium) and significant decreases in selfcriticism (Hated Self P=.017; .34 and Inadequate Self P<.001; .33) and self-uncompassionate responding (P<.001; .39). All three effect sizes were small. Participating in EFT-SCP had a positive effect on psychological and physiological outcomes.

Self-Compassion Scale: IRT Psychometric Analysis, Validation, and Factor Structure - Slovak Translation.

The present study verifies the psychometric properties of the Slovak version of the Self-Compassion Scale through item response theory, factor-analysis, validity analyses and norm development. The surveyed sample consisted of 1,181 participants (34% men and 66% women) with a mean age of 30.30 years (SD = 12.40). Two general factors (Self-compassionate responding and Self-uncompassionate responding) were identified, whereas there was no support for a single general factor of the scale and six subscales. The results of the factor analysis were supported by an independent sample of 676 participants. Therefore, the use of total score for the whole scale would be inappropriate. In Slovak language the Self-Compassion Scale should be used in the form of two general subscales (Self-compassionate responding and Self-uncompassionate responding). In line with our theoretical assumptions, we obtained relatively high Spearman's correlation coefficients between the Self-Compassion Scale and related external variables, demonstrating construct validity for the scale. To sum up, the Slovak translation of The Self-Compassion Scale is a reliable and valid instrument that measures Self-compassionate responding and Self-uncompassionate responding.

The Factor Structure of the Forms of Self-Criticising/Attacking & Self-Reassuring Scale in Thirteen Distinct Populations.

There is considerable evidence that self-criticism plays a major role in the vulnerability to and recovery from psychopathology. Methods to measure this process, and its change over time, are therefore important for research in psychopathology and well-being. This study examined the factor structure of a widely used measure, the Forms of Self-Criticising/Attacking & Self-Reassuring Scale in thirteen nonclinical samples (N = 7510) from twelve different countries: Australia (N = 319), Canada (N = 383), Switzerland (N = 230), Israel (N = 476), Italy (N = 389), Japan (N = 264), the Netherlands (N = 360), Portugal (N = 764), Slovakia (N = 1326), Taiwan (N = 417), the United Kingdom 1 (N = 1570), the United Kingdom 2 (N = 883), and USA (N = 331). This study used more advanced analyses than prior reports: a bifactor item-response theory model, a two-tier item-response theory model, and a non-parametric item-response theory (Mokken) scale analysis. Although the original three-factor solution for the FSCRS (distinguishing between Inadequate-Self, Hated-Self, and Reassured-Self) had an acceptable fit, two-tier models, with two general factors (Self-criticism and Self-reassurance) demonstrated the best fit across all samples. This study provides preliminary evidence suggesting that this two-factor structure can be used in a range of nonclinical contexts across countries and cultures. Inadequate-Self and Hated-Self might not by distinct factors in nonclinical samples. Future work may benefit from distinguishing between self-correction versus shame-based self-criticism.

Small-scale societies exhibit fundamental variation in the role of intentions in moral judgment.

Intent and mitigating circumstances play a central role in moral and legal assessments in large-scale industrialized societies. Although these features of moral assessment are widely assumed to be universal, to date, they have only been studied in a narrow range of societies. We show that there is substantial cross-cultural variation among eight traditional small-scale societies (ranging from hunter-gatherer to pastoralist to horticulturalist) and two Western societies (one urban, one rural) in the extent to which intent and mitigating circumstances influence moral judgments. Although participants in all societies took such factors into account to some degree, they did so to very different extents, varying in both the types of considerations taken into account and the types of violations to which such considerations were applied. The particular patterns of assessment characteristic of large-scale industrialized societies may thus reflect relatively recently culturally evolved norms rather than inherent features of human moral judgment.

Moral parochialism and contextual contingency across seven societies.

Human moral judgement may have evolved to maximize the individual's welfare given parochial culturally constructed moral systems. If so, then moral condemnation should be more severe when transgressions are recent and local, and should be sensitive to the pronouncements of authority figures (who are often arbiters of moral norms), as the fitness pay-offs of moral disapproval will primarily derive from the ramifications of condemning actions that occur within the immediate social arena. Correspondingly, moral transgressions should be viewed as less objectionable if they occur in other places or times, or if local authorities deem them acceptable. These predictions contrast markedly with those derived from prevailing non-evolutionary perspectives on moral judgement. Both classes of theories predict purportedly species-typical patterns, yet to our knowledge, no study to date has investigated moral judgement across a diverse set of societies, including a range of small-scale communities that differ substantially from large highly urbanized nations. We tested these predictions in five small-scale societies and two large-scale societies, finding substantial evidence of moral parochialism and contextual contingency in adults' moral judgements. Results reveal an overarching pattern in which moral condemnation reflects a concern with immediate local considerations, a pattern consistent with a variety of evolutionary accounts of moral judgement.